Literary Forms in the Old Testament

In the preface of his translation, The Modern Reader’s Bible, Richard G. Moulton states: “We are all agreed to speak of the Bible as a supremely great literature. Yet, when we open our ordinary versions, we look in vain for the lyrics, epics, dramas, essays, sonnets, treatises, which make the other great literatures of the world; instead of these the eye catches nothing but a monotonous uniformity of numbered sentences, more suggestive of an itemised legal instrument than of what we understand of literature.”

In this translation, which is based on the English Revised Version of 1885, Professor Moulton has tried to give assistance in meeting this difficulty. What are his qualifications? He was a professor of literary theory and interpretation in the University of Chicago, prior to 1924. The evidence of the literary qualities is more apparent in the Old Testament than in the New Testament. Thus, this paper deals solely with the Old Testament.

Professor Moulton has pointed out the various examples of literary form by name and by separating them within the text. I have picked these out and listed them below. In some cases, I have selected only a few examples of a type because there are so many. There may be a few types which literature teachers would not include. However, they are included because they show differences in structure.

Following the name of each form are examples, and in most cases, explanations of these forms. For the most part, the definitions have been selected from the Funk and Wagnalls Standard Dictionary of the English Language. Part of the explanation for the examples comes from the notes at the end of the Modern Reader’s Bible. When reading this, it would be well to follow in a Bible. If the Modern Reader’s Bible is not available, the King James Version would be good, even though it does not name the structures.

The Holy Bible in Modern English, translated by Ferrar Fenton, shows well the poetry of the Old Testament. The New Evangelical Translation shows the poetry in Revelation and Hebrew poetical construction throughout the New Testament. However, the Modern Reader’s Bible goes further by also indicating the types of literature used. Professor Moulton has shown that the writers were inspired to create literature that could be adapted from that of their culture to that of later cultures.

Acrostic (Proverbs 31:10-31)

Each verse or group of verses in any acrostic form begins with a letter of the Hebrew alphabet in order. The best-known example is Psalm 119. In the King James Version, this psalm is divided into twenty-two sections of eight verses each, under the heading of each of the letters the alphabet. Thus, each of the first eight verses begins with the letter aleph in Hebrew. Then each of the next eight verses begin with beth. This pattern follows with the rest of the alphabet.

Acrostic Anthem (See: Anthem, Acrostic)

Acrostic Dirge (See: Dirge, Acrostic)

Acrostic Liturgy (See: Liturgy, Acrostic)

Acrostic Meditation (See: Meditation, Acrostic)

Alternating Monologue (See: Monologue, Alternating)

Anthem (1 Chronicles 16:8-36; Psalm 24; Psalm 27; Psalm 30)

An anthem is a joyous triumphal song or hymn. 1 Chronicles 16:8-36 is an anthem of worship in which the children of Israel praise the Lord.

Anthem, Acrostic (Psalm 9:1-18)

This is an anthem in which each line begins with consecutive letters of the Hebrew alphabet.

Anthem, Festal (Psalms 95-100; Psalms 145-150)

This is a joyous hymn suited to a feast or festival. The sequence of Psalms 95-100 is almost like a modern oratorio. Each of these psalms celebrate Jehovah as creator and ruler of the whole earth, as well as being the God of Israel.

Anthem, Votive (Psalms 111-118)

The word votive refers to dedication to a vow. In Psalm 116:1-2, the psalmist expresses joy, then states a vow. The vow is missing from An American Translation (Beck), New American Bible, New English Bible, New Jerusalem Bible, and Today’s English Version, in this particular verse.

Anthem, War (Psalms 20 and 21; Psalm 60)

This is a hymn that deals with war. Psalm 20 expresses the feeling of the people before a battle. Psalm 21 expresses the feeling after a battle.

Anthology of Disconnected Sayings (See: Sayings, Anthology of Disconnected)

Ballad, War (Psalm 59)

A ballad is a narrative poem or song of popular origin in short stanzas, often with a refrain. In Psalm 59, the psalmist seeks God’s help from his enemies. This psalm is made up of three four-line stanzas, four three-line refrains, three four-line stanzas, and four three-line refrain. The first three-line refrain in the second set is virtually the same as that of the first set.

Building Specifications (See: Specifications, Building)

Catalogue (Joshua 12)

A catalogue is a list or enumeration of names, persons, or things, usually in alphabetical order, sometimes with accompanying description. Joshua 12 is an appendix which lists the kings which the children of Israel conquered. In some cases, a brief description is given.

Census (Numbers 1-14; Numbers 26)

A census is an official numbering of the people of a country or district. Numbers 1 is an appendix containing a census of the congregation of the children of Israel by families of all the males of twenty years of age or more.

Chronicle (Ezra 1; Ezra 4:9 – 6:22)

A chronicle is a register of events in the order of time. Except for chapter 2, the first six chapters of Ezra tell of the course of events of the return to Jerusalem under Zerubbabel and the building of the temple. This is better than 1 and 2 Chronicles as an example.

Debate (Job 4-30)

A debate is the discussing of any problem. Job’s starting-point in the debate is his curse. He continually subsides after outbursts of passionate argument. To his friends, this is ignoring a visitation of God. The debate is concluded with the intervention of God.

Dialogue, Dramatic (Isaiah 24; Habakkuk 1:1 – 2:5)

A dialogue is a literary work in which two or more characters are represented as conversing. The passage from Habakkuk has the prophet and the Lord speaking. The structure is that of a drama.

Dirge, Acrostic (Lamentations 1-5)

A dirge is a song or wail expressing grief and mourning. The Book of Lamentations deals with the desolation from the fall of Jerusalem. In addition, this book follows the acrostic pattern of each verse in each chapter beginning with consecutive letters of the Hebrew alphabet.

Discourse (Jeremiah 7-10; Jeremiah 18-20; Micah 1-5)

A discourse is a long treatise or dissertation or sermon. The Book of Micah is such a structure on the theme of judgment and salvation.

Doxology (Psalm 113; Psalm 115; Psalm 117)

This is a hymn or verse of praise to God. Psalm 113 is a general doxology; Psalm 115 is a doxology of Israel; and Psalm 117 is a doxology of the nations. All give praise to God.

Dramatic Dialogue (See: Dialogue, Dramatic)

Dramatic Monologue (See: Monologue, Dramatic)

Dramatic Poem (See: Poem, Dramatic)

Elegy (Psalm 74; Psalm 79; Psalm 80; Psalm 88; Psalm 137)

An elegy is a meditative poem with a sorrowful theme. Psalm 137 is a poem in which the children of Israel recall Jerusalem during their time of captivity in Babylon.

Epigram (Proverbs 22:22 – 23:28; Proverbs 24:1-25)

An epigram is a short, pithy poem, especially one ending with a caustic point. In Proverbs 23, verses 19 and 20 give advice, while verse 21 gives the bad effects of not obeying this advice.

Epistle (Jeremiah 29; Proverbs 22:17 – 24:34)

An epistle is a formal letter, especially applied to ancient writings of sacred character or of literary excellence. Jeremiah 29 is a letter sent by the prophet from Jerusalem to the residue of the elders, priests, prophets, and people in the Babylonian captivity.

Essay (Ecclesiastes 1-12)

An essay is a literary composition on some special subject, analytical, expository, critical, or reflective and personal, commonly briefer and less complete and formal than a treatise. Ecclesiastes 5:10 to 6:11 is an essay by the preacher on the subject of the vanity of desire. As in any essay, the writer states his topic in the first paragraph and refers to it in his concluding paragraph.

Festal Anthem (See: Anthem, Festal)

Festal Hallelujah (See: Hallelujah, Festal)

Folk Song (See: Song, Folk)

Genealogy (Genesis 5; Genesis 10; Genesis 11:10-32; Genesis 25:1-20; 1 Chronicles 1-15)

A genealogy is a list of ancestors and their descendants. Genesis 5 lists the descendants of Adam as far as the sons of Noah.

Hallelujah, Festal (Psalm 135)

A hallelujah is a musical composition whose principal theme is found in the word hallelujah. This word appears in Psalm 135 only in the title and at the end. The psalm is a series of choruses and semichoruses in which praise is given to God.

Hymn, Festal (Psalm 33; Psalm 81)

A hymn is a song that expresses praise or adoration.

Hymn, National (Psalm 78; Psalm 105; Psalm 106; Psalm 136)

This corresponds to the national anthem of modern nations. There are four of these in the Book of Psalms. These hymns are devoted to the history of the relationship between Jehovah and his chosen people. That there are four, and not one, is due to the changes in that relationship. Psalm 136 is the National Hymn of the Wilderness. Psalm 105 is the National Hymn of the Promised Land. Psalm 78 is the National Hymn of the Kingdom of Judah. Psalm 106 is the National Hymn of the Captivity.

Hymn, Processional (Psalm 68; Psalm 118)

This is a hymn sung during a religious procession. Psalm 68 has three parts in describing the procession of the children of Israel. In the introduction (verses 1-3) is the song of the Levites starting with the ark. Section I (verses 4-18) deals with the past, from life in the wilderness to the conquest of the promised land. Section II (verses 19-35) deals with the present and leading to the future.

Hymn, Royal Marriage (Psalm 45)

First the royal bridegroom is described. Then comes the procession. In the latter part, the bride, followed by her suite of virgins, comes. Towards the end are thoughts of wifely submission and offspring.

Hymn, Votive (Psalm 34; Psalm 66)

This is a hymn which expresses a vow. In Psalm 66, verses 1-12 express praise, while verses 13-15 express a vow.

Idyl (Song of Songs 1-8)

An idyl is a short poem or prose piece depicting simple scenes of pastoral, domestic, or country life; also, a more extensive description or narrative poem. The Song of Songs is made up of seven idylls. For example, all of chapter 1 to the end of verse 7 in chapter 2 describe the wedding day.

Itinerary (Numbers 33:1-49)

An itinerary is a detailed account or diary of a journey. Numbers 33:1-49 is an appendix which gives detail of the journeys of the children of Israel when they left Egypt under the leadership of Moses and Aaron.

Litany (Psalm 35; Psalm 55; Psalm 70)

A litany is a liturgical form of prayer consisting of a series of different supplications said by the clergy, to which the choir or people repeat the same response. In Psalm 70 are several requests to God and a repetition of the words make haste.

Liturgy (Psalm 40; Psalm 65; Psalm 86)

A liturgy is a collection of prescribed forms of public worship. An order of service can be found in Psalm 55. Verse 1 is praise; verse 2 is prayer; verse 3 is penitence; verse 4 is aspiration; verses 5-8 are confessions of faith; and verses 9-13 are adoration.

Liturgy, Acrostic (Psalm 25)

This is a liturgy that is written in the acrostic form.

Lyric (Psalm 23; Isaiah 60)

This is a verse expressing the poet’s personal emotions or sentiments. It is song-like, as distinguished from epic or dramatic. Psalm 23 is one of the most popular sacred lyrics. It begins with a simple image of the shepherd and his flock, followed by a rapid succession of images.

Maxim (Ecclesiastes 4:9, 13; Ecclesiastes 5:1, 8)

A maxim is a brief statement of practical principle. It is synonymous with a proverb. All of the ones listed here fit this description.

Meditation, Acrostic (Psalm 37; Psalm 119)

A meditation is the turning or revolving of a subject in the mind. In Psalm 37, the psalmist advises the reader to consider the advantages of leading a righteous life as against the disadvantages of leading a wicked life. The acrostic order of the Hebrew alphabet is used in an acrostic meditation.

Memoir (Nehemiah 1-6; Nehemiah 12:27 – 13:31)

A memoir is an account of something deemed worthy of record. In Nehemiah 1-6 is a personal account by Nehemiah of his return to Jerusalem and the building of the walls of that city.

Monologue, Alternating (Isaiah 41-48; Hosea 11-13)

This is a construction in which the sole speaker directs his remarks to one audience, then to one or more audiences, alternating between them throughout. In the passage from Isaiah, God speaks to Israel and to the nations in this manner.

Monologue, Dramatic (Ecclesiastes 1:12 – 2:26; Proverbs 7 and 8)

A monologue is a literary composition, or a poem, written as a soliloquy or a story or drama told or performed by one person. Those who have studied Shakespearean plays will be familiar with this form. In Ecclesiastes 1:12-24, the preacher is speaking, but to no audience in particular)

National Hymn (See: Hymn, National)

Number Sonnet (See: Sonnet, Number)

Ode (Psalm 89)

In modern usage, an ode is a lyric poem, rhymed or unrhymed, of lofty tone, treating progressively one dignified theme, often in the form of an address. Such describes Psalm 89, whose theme is the covenant of David.

Oracle (Isaiah 21, 22; Proverbs 31:1-9; Nahum 1; Habakkuk 1-3)

In the Bible, an oracle is a divine command or communication. Isaiah 21:1 to 22:3 contains four communications of the Lord to the prophet.

Oration (Deuteronomy 1-33)

An oration is an elaborate public speech. All of the Book of Deuteronomy to 31:12 represents four speeches of Moses to the children of Israel.

Parable (Isaiah 5:1-7; Ezekiel 15-19)

This is a short narrative making a moral or religious point by comparison with natural or homely things. Isaiah 5:1-7 is a parable of the vineyard. Verses 1-6 relate to an actual vineyard, while verse 7 explains the meaning of the parable. In the essay Numbers in the Scriptures, it is pointed out that one to six deals with the human elements while number seven deals with the spiritual.

Pilgrims’ Song (See: Song, Pilgrims’)

Poem, Dramatic (Job 1-42)

This is a poem like a drama, especially involving conflict. There is drama in the Book of Job. There was much conflict in the life of Job. Professor Moulton has constructed his translation of Job as a poem, as have some other translators.

Processional Hymn (See: Hymn, Processional)

Proverb (Proverbs 10:1 – 22:16; Proverbs 25-29; Ezekiel 12:21-28)

This is a pithy saying, especially one condensing the wisdom of experience. There are many examples in the Book of Proverbs, one of which is 10:2.

Register (Ezra 8:1-14; Ezra 10:18-44; Nehemiah 10:1-27; Nehemiah 12:1-26)

This is an official record, the book containing it, or any entry therein. Nehemiah 12:1-26 is the register of the priests and Levites returning to Jerusalem with Zerubbabel.

Rhapsody (Isaiah 24-27; Isaiah 33; Isaiah 40-66; Jeremiah 14; Jeremiah 15; Joel 1-7; Amos 1-5; Habakkuk 1-3)

A rhapsody is a series of disconnected and often extravagant sentences, extracts, or utterances, gathered or composed under excitement. In Isaiah 33, Professor Moulton has several speakers in this order: the prophet, Israel, the prophet, Israel’s ambassadors, God, sinners of Zion, and the godly of Zion. The subject of concern is salvation. There is a mixture of groaning and rejoicing by the people.

Riddle Sonnet (See: Sonnet, Riddle)

Royal Marriage Hymn (See: Hymn, Royal Marriage)

Sayings, Anthology of Disconnected (Proverbs 30)

A saying is a maxim. An anthology is a collection of choice or representative literary extracts. Being disconnected, these sayings are not consistent in theme with each other. Proverbs 30 refers to numerous topics and are arranged in such forms as epigram, proverb, and sonnet of different lengths.

Song (Exodus 15:2-18; Deuteronomy 31:14 – 32:43; 2 Samuel 22; Psalm 11; Psalm 18; Isaiah 54 and 55 Isaiah 60)

A song is a short poem whether to be sung or not. It can also be classified as a lyric or a ballad. 2 Samuel 22 is the song that David spoke to God when he was delivered out of the hand of his enemies.

Song, Folk (Proverbs 27:23-27)

A folk song is a poem dealing with the common people. Proverbs 27:23-27 is a song about caring for flocks and providing food for one’s family.

Song, Pilgrims’ (Psalms 124-130)

A pilgrim is one who journeys to some sacred place from religious motives. Two theories in regard to Psalms 120-134 connect these poems with the Pilgrimages to Jerusalem at the Great Feasts and with the Return to Jerusalem from Babylon.

Sonnet (Proverbs 1-9; Ecclesiastes 12:1-7)

A sonnet is a poem of fourteen lines classified as being either Italian or Shakespearean. Another definition is a short poem. The latter definition better describes the sonnets listed here.

Sonnet, Number (Proverbs 30:7-9; 15-16; 18-19; 21-23; 24-28; 29-31)

In a number sonnet, the opening line announces a scheme – using a number – to which the rest conforms. In Proverbs 30, the six sonnets have two, two, three, three, four, and three, respectively, in the first line.

Sonnet, Riddle (Proverbs 23:29-35)

A riddle is a puzzling question. In this example, verse 29 poses the question, verse 30 gives the answer, verse 31 offers advice, and verses 32-35 state the symptoms of the malady.

Specifications, Building (Exodus 35-40; 1 Kings 6 1 – 7:51; 2 Chronicles 3 and 4)

They are a specific description of certain dimensions, types of materials, etc., to be used in a construction or engineering project. Exodus 35-40 is an appendix which gives the specific details for the building of the tabernacle.

Story (Genesis 12-24; Genesis 27:1 – 35:22; Genesis 39-50; Joshua 1-11; Joshua 23; Judges 6:21; Ruth 1-4; 1 Kings 17; Esther 1-10)

This is a narrative or recital of an event, or a series, whether real or fictitious. Genesis 22:1-19 tells the story of the offering of Isaac.

Suite (Ecclesiates 1-12, Song of Songs)

A suite is a set of things having a certain dependence upon each other and intended to go or to be used together. Ecclesiastes 1-12 makes up a suite of essays. The Song of Songs makes up a suite of idyls.

Suite of Essays (See: Essay)

Suite of Idyls (See: Idyl)

Votive Anthem (See: Anthem, Votive)

Votive Hymn (See: Hymn, Votive)

War Anthem (See: Anthem, War)

War Ballad (See: Ballad, War)

Most people who accept the Bible will agree that the contents were inspired of God. However, not all will agree that each writer wrote his interpretation of his inspiration in his own style. The work of Professor Moulton shows the inspirational skill of these ancient writers.

Probably few people who read the Bible realize the wealth of literature in the Old Testament, much less where to locate it. This essay barely touches the surface of what is actually there. I hope that anyone who is interested in Biblical literature will check out the references given, and even go further in searching for more examples. Since The Modern Reader’s Bible may not be available to many people, there lies a challenge. Much can be learned, regardless of the version used.